In this blog post, we will examine the role of science and technology in Joseon society, focusing on the early and late Joseon periods to explore the patterns of development and limitations of science and technology.
How should we understand science and technology in Joseon society?
To examine the role of science and technology in Joseon society, we must first understand the broader context of world history at that time. Many historians assess that, prior to the European Scientific Revolution, the level of science and technology in the Arab world and East Asia was higher than—or at least on par with—that of contemporary Europe. Yuval Harari also presents this view in his book ‘Sapiens’, explaining that the Scientific Revolution in Europe later led to an explosive advancement in science and technology as it became intertwined with the development of capitalism and imperialism.
During the same period, the Joseon Dynasty, which flourished on the Korean Peninsula, possessed technology—such as the Jaegyeongru—that remains difficult to replicate with such precision even today, and created an environment where scholars, centered around the Jiphyeonjeon, could devote themselves to academic research. Of course, one could point out that a significant portion of research at the time was centered on Neo-Confucianism. However, considering that in pre-modern Europe, science was also perceived as a branch of philosophy—and many scientists were also philosophers—the Joseon atmosphere of valuing scholarship was by no means behind global standards of the time.
Why, then, did Joseon fail to achieve the same level of industrial and scientific development as the European powers, despite possessing outstanding technological capabilities? In this paper, I will examine the reasons for this by analyzing the level of science and technology in Joseon, the position they held in society, and the driving forces behind their development. Furthermore, I will divide the discussion into two periods: the early period, spanning from the founding of Joseon to the Imjin War, and the late period, spanning from the Imjin War and the Second Manchu Invasion to the establishment of the Korean Empire.
Furthermore, before delving into the main discussion, this paper will distinguish and define the concepts of “science” and “technology” as used herein. In this paper, “science” refers to the discipline that seeks to elucidate why certain phenomena occur, while “technology” refers to the methods for actually utilizing such phenomena. For example, the creation of astronomical charts is considered a technological advancement. This is because the purpose of creating such charts is not to determine why stars move, but rather to record the movements of celestial bodies and predict events such as solar eclipses and seasonal changes. Similarly, the invention of the compass constitutes an advancement in technology, as it involved creating a tool for determining direction rather than elucidating why the needle points north under specific conditions. On the other hand, observing a falling apple and attempting to uncover the principles of its motion can be classified as an advancement in science.
So, how can we distinguish cases that straddle the boundary between science and technology—such as researching the principles of disease transmission to prevent its spread? In fact, science has largely developed alongside the goal of technological application. Therefore, if there is an attempt to propose hypotheses or models to explain the operating principles of phenomena—going beyond mere observation or application—this would be considered an advancement in science.
Based on this criterion, it can be argued that scholars of the Joseon Dynasty achieved outstanding results in technological development but showed relatively little interest in scientific inquiry aimed at explaining phenomena. Consequently, despite possessing outstanding technological capabilities, there were limitations to their sustained development, and I believe that an explosive scientific and technological revolution, such as that seen in the West, was unlikely to emerge within this social structure. To examine this, I will first review the level of science and technology in the early and late Joseon periods, and then analyze the driving forces behind their development and the sociocultural atmosphere in that order.
How advanced was science and technology in the early Joseon period?
Technological capabilities in the early Joseon period were particularly notable in fields such as printing, astronomical observation, systems of weights and measures, firearms, and medicine.
First, regarding printing, the metal movable type technology that began in the Goryeo Dynasty was further developed in the early Joseon period, with the Gap-in type produced during the reign of King Sejong serving as a representative achievement. The Gap-in type was made of copper, allowing for mass casting, and significantly increased printing efficiency through the use of modular type sets. In his work ‘Gap-inja Bal’, the scholar Byun Gye-ryang of King Sejong’s reign highly praised the advancement of printing technology at the time, stating, “There is no book that has not been printed, and no one who has not been educated.” While this may have been a slight exaggeration, Joseon’s outstanding printing technology played a crucial role in widely disseminating books even to the provinces. This represented a high level of technical proficiency by global standards, and such development was made possible by the Confucian state ideology that emphasized scholarship and education.
Firearms, whose development began during the reign of King Taejong, were also put to full-scale practical use during the reign of King Sejong. Initially, the Joseon Dynasty relied on Ming Dynasty technology, but over time, it established its own independent cannon-making techniques. According to records, a considerable amount of gunpowder was produced and used for military purposes at that time, and these developments were driven by the military necessity of countering the Jurchen forces in the north and Japanese pirates along the southern coast. In fact, cannons were used in campaigns against the Jurchen, and records indicate that production was restricted in some regions out of concern that gunpowder manufacturing technology might be leaked.
Astronomy during the Joseon Dynasty was a comprehensive field that encompassed not only simple celestial observation but also the development of the calendar system and meteorological observations. An observatory was established at Gyeongbokgung Palace to observe celestial bodies, and continuous observations were also conducted at Mount Samgak, Mount Geumgang, Mount Mani, Mount Baekdu, Mount Jiri, and Mount Halla. Based on this research, in the 24th year of King Sejong’s reign, Joseon’s independent calendar system, the “Chiljeongsan,” was completed.
Meteorological observation technology, epitomized by the rain gauge, was also at a world-class level at the time. The principle behind measuring precipitation using the rain gauge is fundamentally very similar to today’s methods. However, despite the excellence of the measurement technology, the field had not yet reached the stage of scientifically explaining the principles of meteorological phenomena, and weather forecasting also relied heavily on experience and traditional beliefs.
Among the technologies of the early Joseon period, time measurement technology is particularly noteworthy. In Joseon, an agrarian nation, an accurate calendar was of great importance, and during King Sejong’s reign, highly precise automatic water clocks, such as the “Jangseungru,” were also constructed. Accurate time measurement is significant not only for scientific research but also for administration and the functioning of society. This fact demonstrates that the technological level and social management systems of the early Joseon period had reached a considerably high standard.
Another notable area is standard units of measurement. Today, the meter is defined based on the speed of light, but in the past, physical standards were used. In Joseon, when King Sejong standardized the system of weights and measures, he created the Yeongjo Cheok based on the Huangjonggwan—a tube that produced the pitch of the Huangjong scale—and established a standard for weight using the mass of water contained in the Huangjonggwan. The attempt to set standards by linking length and weight to specific natural phenomena was a highly creative idea for that time.
There were also clear limitations to technological development in the early Joseon period. Most of the examples examined above are concentrated during the reigns of specific monarchs, such as King Sejong. This indicates that technological development was state-led and heavily dependent on the king’s interest and will. While this approach had the advantage of allowing resources to be concentrated on necessary fields, it had limitations when it came to autonomously accumulating knowledge and conducting sustained research across diverse fields. Furthermore, if the king did not take an interest in technological development, research itself could have been severely curtailed.
Another significant limitation was that, in contrast to outstanding technological achievements, scientific research aimed at explaining the principles of natural phenomena was relatively scarce. This was because Neo-Confucianism was accepted as the fundamental principle of the world, and there was a strong tendency to understand the workings of nature through philosophical discussion and interpretation rather than through experimentation and observation. Paradoxically, the social atmosphere that valued scholarship actually acted as a constraint on scientific development in certain fields.
Why Did Science and Technology Stagnate in the Late Joseon Period?
Compared to the early Joseon period, which had achieved dazzling technological advancements, the pace of scientific and technological development slowed significantly in the late Joseon period. The Imjin War and the Second Manchu Invasion severely damaged existing technologies and institutions, and much effort had to be devoted to restoring lost technologies rather than achieving new developments.
During this period, efforts continued to restore and carry forward the technologies of the early Joseon era, such as revising astronomical charts and the calendar system by referencing observational data from Western astronomers, including Tycho Brahe, and expanding the casting of metal movable type after having previously relied on wooden movable type. However, these changes were closer to the restoration of existing technologies and the adoption of external technologies than to independent technological innovation.
In particular, even during the reign of King Jeongjo—when Silhak (Practical Learning) flourished and the School of Practical Learning for the Public Good was active—global science and technology were already advancing rapidly amid the Industrial Revolution. In the 18th century, the Industrial Revolution began in earnest with the development and refinement of the steam engine, and in the West, scientific research and technological development became closely intertwined, giving rise to new industries and production systems. In contrast, rather than actively responding to these changes, Joseon remained mired in debates over the extent to which it should adopt the advanced science and technology of the West and the Qing Dynasty.
At the time, there was strong resistance to Catholicism, which clashed with Neo-Confucian values. Consequently, many scholars were opposed to fully embracing Western culture and argued that only a limited portion should be adopted. Amid this atmosphere, the gap in scientific and technological capabilities that had already begun to widen continued to grow, and ultimately, even after the establishment of the Korean Empire, modernization was not fully achieved, leading to the loss of national sovereignty.
What limitations did science and technology face in Joseon society?
To summarize what we have examined so far, the technological capabilities of the early Joseon period were at a very high level even when compared to the rest of the world at that time. Outstanding achievements were made in various fields, such as printing, astronomical observation, systems of weights and measures, firearms, and clockmaking, and diverse technologies developed under the state’s active support.
However, a major limitation was that technological development relied too heavily on a highly centralized system. While progress was rapid when a particular monarch showed interest and provided support, the social infrastructure necessary to sustain continuous research was not sufficiently established. Furthermore, more attention was paid to the development of practical technologies than to scientific research exploring the principles of natural phenomena, and there was a strong tendency to understand the principles of nature within the framework of Neo-Confucian philosophy.
Under this structure, it was extremely difficult to maintain and restore technology when large-scale social upheavals, such as wars, occurred. The fall of the capital during the Imjin War and the Manchu Invasion, coupled with significant damage to technicians, artisans, and related literature, led to a disruption in the accumulated technological knowledge. Given the lack of a foundation for systematically researching and accumulating technological principles, even reproducing existing technologies required considerable time and effort.
Furthermore, as efforts to actively adopt Western science and technology—which were rapidly advancing through the Scientific Revolution—were limited, Joseon’s science and technology gradually fell behind the global tide of change. Ultimately, the combined effect of these various factors made the transition to a modern nation difficult and led to the loss of national sovereignty.
Of course, since history involves numerous variables, it is difficult to explain the decline of Joseon based on a single cause. Furthermore, in today’s historical scholarship, it is common to interpret Joseon’s development and limitations by considering various factors together, such as political, economic, social, and international conditions. Nevertheless, the tendency within Joseon society to place greater emphasis on the practical application of technology than on scientific inquiry can be seen as having imposed certain limitations on long-term scientific and technological development. Even if the Imjin War and the Second Manchu Invasion had not occurred, it is likely that achieving an explosive scientific and technological revolution similar to that seen in the West would have been difficult without a sufficiently established foundation for scientific research—one that continuously explored and accumulated knowledge of the principles of natural phenomena. This was because the structure of the time meant that the emergence and development of new technologies inevitably depended heavily on the capabilities of a few outstanding individuals. Ultimately, it can be concluded that the academic system of the time—dominated by Neo-Confucianism—was insufficient to bring about changes such as the modern scientific revolution.
