In this blog post, we will examine the increasing demand for resources and the limitations of land-based resources, and explore the potential of marine resources as a solution to future resource shortages, as well as the challenges facing South Korea in developing its marine resources.
Future generations are likely to face severe resource shortages. The global population continues to grow, and according to recent United Nations projections, it is expected to rise from approximately 8.2 billion in 2024 to about 9.7 billion by 2050. In particular, as economic growth and industrialization continue in emerging and developing countries, demand for energy and mineral resources is projected to increase significantly. The International Energy Agency (IEA) forecasts that demand for critical minerals needed for clean energy technologies will rise rapidly as the energy transition gains momentum; even under a “business-as-usual” scenario, it projects that demand for these minerals will increase significantly by 2030 compared to 2024 levels. In contrast, onshore resources have already been largely developed, primarily in areas where economic viability has been established. Generally, resources are developed when their market value exceeds the costs required for exploration and extraction; however, the volume of resources that can be economically developed varies depending on technological levels, prices, reserves, and environmental regulations. Therefore, even if the price of a specific resource rises, the risk of resource depletion does not disappear; rather, uncertainty regarding resource security may increase due to supply chain concentration or the time required for development. In particular, critical minerals are widely used in electric vehicles, batteries, renewable energy facilities, and power grids, making their stable future supply increasingly important. As such, the potential for supply instability is growing for some resources due to high demand and intensive development. South Korea, which is highly dependent on resource imports, needs to focus not only on onshore resources but also on marine resources—which hold significant development potential—to address these resource shortages. Considering that approximately 71% of the Earth’s surface is covered by oceans, the seabed offers a space where resources can be explored and secured in ways distinct from those on land. In fact, various mineral resources—such as manganese nodules, seafloor hydrothermal deposits, and manganese crusts—have been confirmed to exist on the seabed, and as marine resource exploration and technological development advance, they have the potential to contribute to expanding the range of resources available to humanity.
Currently, South Korea’s marine resource exploration and development are centered on its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and overseas waters. Looking first at marine resource exploration within the EEZ, South Korea has been conducting comprehensive surveys of its EEZ since the late 1990s, and in the process, the potential for various resources has been identified in the West Sea, East Sea, and South Sea. Past surveys have indicated the potential presence of oil, gas, gas hydrates, phosphate minerals, and seabed coal in the East Sea, while the South Sea was found to have a high probability of containing hydrocarbons—the primary components of oil and natural gas. Furthermore, in the relatively shallow waters of the West Sea, the potential for hydrocarbon deposits has been identified, primarily in the Gunsan and Heuksan basins, and the possibility of commercial development has been evaluated in some areas. However, these past exploration results should not be interpreted as confirming current commercial reserves or development potential; the decision on actual development must be made after a comprehensive review of additional exploration, economic feasibility, environmental impacts, and relevant regulations.
Exploration to secure marine resources is also continuing in marine areas outside the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). The Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ), located in the Pacific Ocean between Hawaii and Mexico, is known to contain extensive deposits of polymetallic nodules containing manganese, nickel, copper, cobalt, and other minerals. This area is an international seabed area beyond national jurisdiction, and the International Seabed Authority (ISA) manages related exploration activities. The South Korean government signed a polymetallic nodule exploration contract with the ISA in 2001 and has continued exploration activities in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone by extending the contract since then. The term of the existing exploration contract was set to expire on April 26, 2026; the Government of the Republic of Korea applied for a contract extension, and the relevant extension application and approval procedures are currently being addressed at the 2026 ISA meeting. Therefore, rather than simply stating that exploration is currently underway—as mentioned in the original text—it is more accurate to view the situation as a process of maintaining exploration rights and continuing related activities in accordance with ISA regulations and contractual procedures.
However, regarding recent marine resource development policies, the challenge remains to secure sustainable growth momentum and establish a long-term development strategy. Unlike onshore resources, marine resources require high costs and advanced technology for exploration and development, and must also take into account international maritime law, inter-state interests, and marine environmental protection issues. Therefore, to enhance the success of marine resource development, it is necessary to examine the issues from three perspectives—administrative systems, technological capabilities, and specialized personnel—and devise solutions for each.
First, it is necessary to improve the efficiency of the administrative system for marine resource development. Currently in South Korea, the Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy is responsible for policies related to critical minerals, industrial supply chains, and resource security, while the Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries is responsible for policies concerning marine resources and the marine industry, taking into account the unique nature of the marine environment. Since the marine environment is administratively linked to multiple sectors, there is a possibility of overlapping responsibilities between ministries or of similar projects being pursued simultaneously. Therefore, it is necessary to organically link the individual plans implemented by each ministry within a national-level marine resource strategy. Even though policy research on marine development is ongoing, if responsibilities related to marine resource development are divided among multiple ministries, there is a risk of overlapping projects or budgets during the planning and implementation phases; consequently, it may become difficult to concentrate limited resources on specific areas. Furthermore, if policies are formulated individually by each ministry, there may be limitations in establishing a long-term strategy for the comprehensive exploration and development of marine resources.
Therefore, close coordination and a clear division of roles among relevant ministries are essential for marine resource development. It is necessary to clearly define the scope of responsibilities for each ministry, ensure that policies and administrative tasks are carried out based on each ministry’s expertise, and establish a coordination framework that allows for joint implementation of key tasks when necessary. Of course, if a single ministry were to take sole responsibility for marine resource development, administrative efficiency could potentially improve. However, marine resource development is a field that simultaneously requires expertise in various disciplines—including marine science, resource development, energy, the environment, and industrial technology—and, when linked to international maritime territorial claims or maritime boundary issues, it also necessitates close consultation with the diplomatic sector. Therefore, rather than having a single ministry handle all tasks, a more realistic approach would be to establish a collaborative framework in which each ministry manages its area of expertise while allowing experts and agencies from other fields to participate when necessary.
Another issue is the lack of sufficient technological capabilities and existing infrastructure required for marine resource development, along with the challenge of continuously securing and nurturing specialized personnel. In particular, deep-sea resource development is a highly challenging field that requires the integration of technologies such as exploration, extraction, transportation, sorting, and smelting in extreme environments thousands of meters deep. In the past, South Korea’s technological capabilities in mineral resource development were assessed as lagging behind those of developed nations, and a technological gap was pointed out in areas such as deep-sea exploration and gas hydrate production technology. However, since then, South Korea has continuously developed technologies related to deep-sea manganese nodule mining and, by the 2010s, had advanced to the stage of testing core technologies for deep-sea manganese nodule mining systems and smelting. Therefore, rather than simply assessing the situation as a lack of technological capability, the key challenge now is to secure the follow-up technologies and industrial infrastructure necessary to bridge the gap between the technologies accumulated through exploration and demonstration and their application in commercial development and the establishment of a stable supply chain.
In this regard, the government needs to take a proactive role in fostering a workforce specialized in marine resource development. Of course, some may question whether the government should directly engage in workforce development. However, marine resource development is a field that requires a long-term commitment—from exploration to commercial production—as well as significant initial investment and specialized expertise. Consequently, companies that prioritize short-term profitability may face limitations in training specialized personnel over the long term, based solely on the current exploration phase. Specialized personnel in the field of marine resources are needed not only in resource engineering but also in various other fields, such as marine science, shipbuilding and offshore plants, robotics, the environment, smelting, and international maritime law. Ultimately, it is important to establish a foundation—from a long-term perspective—where the government, universities, research institutions, and companies can collaborate to cultivate specialized talent and accumulate technology.
With regard to government policies and operations, international cooperation in the field of marine resource development must also be further strengthened. While development, exploration, and private-sector participation regarding energy resources such as oil and natural gas have been relatively active, there is a need to further expand international cooperation regarding future resources, such as clean energy, critical minerals, and seabed mineral resources. In particular, deep-sea mineral resources are closely linked to exploration activities in the International Seabed Area—which is governed by the regulations of the International Seabed Authority—and therefore must strictly adhere to international norms and environmental standards. Furthermore, issues such as the delimitation of Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) boundaries with neighboring countries and the joint development of resources in waters where boundaries have not yet been finalized must also be examined from a long-term perspective. In the past, the Republic of Korea has faced various maritime-related diplomatic issues, such as the Dokdo dispute with Japan and the Ieodo and surrounding waters dispute with China; these issues can also be linked to marine resource development. Therefore, securing marine resources should not be viewed merely as a matter of resource development but must be approached as a comprehensive issue that takes into account international law, diplomacy, security, and the environment.
This requires a multifaceted approach across various fields. First, the Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries must enhance its expertise in international maritime law and actively respond to changes in international norms and environmental standards related to marine resource development. Rather than focusing solely on resources that currently command high prices or are in high demand, it is also important to identify key minerals that are likely to face supply shortages in the future and secure the relevant technologies and exploration capabilities in advance. The Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy must also formulate a strategy that links marine resource development, the securing of onshore resources, recycling, and overseas resource development from the perspective of critical mineral supply chains and industrial competitiveness. In the diplomatic sphere, South Korea must engage in ongoing consultations with relevant nations to ensure the stable protection of its EEZ and maritime rights and interests in accordance with international law. Furthermore, considering the unique nature of inter-Korean relations and the waters surrounding the Korean Peninsula, long-term research is needed on potential future issues regarding maritime boundaries and resource development.
I believe that if South Korea overcomes the three challenges mentioned above, it can secure significant competitiveness in the field of marine resources. Although South Korea has limited resources available on land and relies heavily on overseas sources for a significant portion of its critical minerals, it has already accumulated diverse exploration experience in surrounding waters such as the East Sea, the South Sea, and the West Sea, and continues to conduct deep-sea mineral resource exploration activities in international waters and its EEZ. Furthermore, the country possesses extensive experience in long-term research on core technologies necessary for deep-sea resource development, such as manganese nodule mining and smelting. In particular, given that the stability of the supply chain for critical minerals directly impacts the national economy and the competitiveness of high-tech industries, exploration and technological development in marine resources can serve as a means of preparing for future resource security—going beyond merely seeking new resources. However, marine resources do not automatically translate into abundant economic resources; factors such as economic viability, environmental impacts, international norms, and technical limitations must all be taken into account. If South Korea consistently pursues long-term exploration, technological development, workforce training, and international cooperation while meeting these conditions, it will be able to utilize marine resources as one of the foundations for a stable future resource supply.
