In this blog post, I will compare the evolution of living organisms with that of culture based on the concept of memes proposed by Richard Dawkins, and examine whether memes can be viewed as the agents of cultural evolution by analyzing the differences that emerge in the processes of replication, mutation, and selection.

Introduction

Since Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species’ in 1859, debates surrounding the origin of species and biological diversity have persisted for a long time within the scientific community and society at large. As science advanced, evidence supporting the theory of evolution accumulated gradually, and the renowned British evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins interpreted the evolution of living organisms from the perspective of genes, building upon Darwin’s theory of evolution. He described all living organisms as “survival machines” designed for the survival of genes. His book ‘The Selfish Gene’, which interpreted living organisms as vessels for the survival and replication of genes, caused a major stir. He believed that while the traits of living organisms may change during the evolutionary process, genes—which are replicated and transmitted with relative stability—play a crucial role. Therefore, he argued that while individuals change during the evolution of life, genes act as replicators that are continuously transmitted through the processes of replication and selection. Having explained the evolution of life from the perspective of genes, Dawkins extended this perspective to the realm of culture.
Culture clearly changes and is transmitted across generations, and Dawkins argues that the unit of this cultural evolution is the “meme.” He states that the existence of memes—the units of cultural evolution—can be inferred based on the similarity between the evolutionary processes of living organisms and those of culture. In other words, he viewed memes as performing a role in culture similar to that played by genes in the evolution of living organisms. Considering that culture has changed in various directions since the dawn of humanity and that different cultures have interacted with one another, living organisms and culture exhibit similarities in many respects.
However, crucially, while the existence of genes has been empirically confirmed through molecular biological and genetic research, the “meme”—which Dawkins proposed as the unit of cultural evolution—is not a concept that has been empirically verified as an independent material entity like a gene. Therefore, the mere fact that the process of cultural evolution resembles that of biological evolution is insufficient to prove the existence of the meme as an independent unit of evolution. Moreover, since significant differences actually exist between the two evolutionary processes, Dawkins’ argument that memes are the agents of cultural evolution requires even more careful scrutiny. Therefore, this paper aims to clarify the fundamental differences between the evolution of living organisms and that of culture, and to demonstrate that it is unreasonable to infer that memes are the units of cultural evolution. Furthermore, by examining the differences between living organisms and culture that arise in each of the evolutionary processes—replication, mutation, competition, and selection—with the exception of competition (which can be considered the most similar among the processes he described), I intend to assess whether his claim is sufficiently substantiated.

The Meaning of Memes and the Similarities Between Living Organisms and Memes as Claimed by Dawkins

When Dawkins argues that memes are the agents of cultural evolution, he bases his explanation on the similarities between the evolution of living organisms and the evolution of culture. In several of his works, Dawkins has described living organisms as “survival machines” designed for the survival of genes. Notably, he states, “I think it is better to view the body as a colony of genes,” and interprets the behavior of many living organisms from the perspective of genes, providing evidence to support this view.
He then explains the evolutionary process of living organisms from the perspective of natural selection, as proposed by Darwin, dividing it into four stages: replication, variation, competition, and selection. First, since the existence of genes and the specific mechanisms of inheritance had not yet been clearly elucidated in Darwin’s time, Darwin explained natural selection based on individual variation and differences in survival and reproduction. He observed that individuals within a population exhibit different variations, and that among these variations, individuals possessing traits advantageous for survival and reproduction are able to produce more offspring. A prime example illustrating this natural selection is the color change in moths resulting from the phenomenon of industrial darkening. In industrialized areas, as tree trunks and the surrounding environment darkened, dark-colored moths became less visible to predators than light-colored ones, giving them an advantage in survival and reproduction; as a result, the proportion of dark-colored moths increased. Conversely, in areas relatively less affected by pollution, light-colored moths were more common.
Dawkins explained evolution by introducing the concept of genes into the framework of evolution proposed by Darwin. The central premise of his theory is that living organisms, including humans, are “survival machines” designed to ensure the survival and replication of genes. In other words, the bodies of animals and plants can be viewed as vehicles that aid in the survival and replication of genes. Therefore, from Dawkins’ perspective, an individual’s behavior and traits can be explained from the standpoint of genes, and genes are regarded as the fundamental units for understanding natural selection. First, replication in the evolutionary process can be understood as the replication of the DNA in which genes are located; DNA is capable of passing its genetic information to the next generation through a complex yet sophisticated process. Through this replication, an organism produces genetically very similar offspring in the case of asexual reproduction, and in the case of sexual reproduction, it produces offspring that have inherited genetic information from their parents. Rare errors occurring during DNA replication, recombination, and the combination of genetic information resulting from sexual reproduction lead to differences in nucleotide sequences. These differences create genetic variation, which increases the diversity of the gene pool. Genetic changes such as point mutations, inversions, and translocations occur, and these changes, together with recombination, create new genetic combinations that can ultimately lead to differences in an organism’s traits. Subsequently, within the diversified gene pool, individuals possessing genetic traits advantageous for survival and reproduction are more likely to produce a relatively larger number of offspring. Conversely, individuals with traits disadvantageous for survival and reproduction may see their proportion in the population decrease as a result of natural selection. Consequently, genetic traits advantageous for survival and reproduction in a specific environment are passed on to the next generation in greater numbers, causing the gene frequency within the population to change.
Dawkins identified the significance of each of these processes in the evolution of living organisms. Replication is necessary to widely disseminate genetic information to the next generation and to continuously preserve and transmit the mutations that arise, while mutations allow new traits—which may be advantageous or disadvantageous for survival and reproduction depending on the environment—to emerge. Furthermore, competition is a crucial process that causes individuals with different traits to exhibit differences in survival and reproduction within environments with limited resources. In other words, this suggests that for change and selection to occur, there must be something that is continuously replicated and transmitted. He argues that genes play this role in the evolution of living organisms, while memes play it in the evolution of culture. He believed that the evolution of culture could also be explained by the principle of self-replicators, and just as genes serve as the fundamental unit in natural selection, he defined memes as the unit of evolution in cultural evolution. British psychologist Susan Blackmore lent weight to Dawkins’ argument by further developing the concept of memes and linking human cultural and imitative abilities to meme theory. After defining memes, Dawkins sought to infer their existence based on the similarities between genes and memes. First, he explains that just as genes spread within a gene pool by utilizing biological transmission systems such as sperm and eggs, memes also travel from brain to brain through the process of imitation as cultural information is passed from person to person. He states that a person who receives a meme retains the information it contains, and that the process by which a meme spreads more widely through imitation corresponds to replication in the evolution of living organisms. Furthermore, Dawkins argues that because human imitation is imperfect, the fact that culture is transmitted in slightly altered forms corresponds to variation in the evolutionary process. In the stage of competition, he focuses on the fact that memes exist and spread through the human brain and behavior. While memes do not have a concept that exactly corresponds to the alleles found in genes, he argues that because human attention and memory are limited, when one meme captures a person’s attention, the opportunity for other memes to be transmitted may decrease; this is analogous to how genetic variations in the gene pool yield different outcomes for survival and reproduction. He explains that differences subsequently emerge between memes that spread successfully and those that do not; since this manifests as whether a particular culture becomes widely disseminated, it can be said that selection also operates in the transmission of memes.

Differences Between Culture and Living Organisms in the Processes of Replication, Mutation, and Selection

Although Dawkins made his argument by citing the similarities between the evolution of living organisms and the evolution of culture, as described above, there are clearly significant differences that cannot be overlooked. Among the four evolutionary processes he presented, major differences exist in the three processes—replication, mutation, and selection—excluding competition, which is arguably the most similar.
There are three major differences in the process of replication. First, in living organisms, genetic information is generally replicated through a vertical relationship—transmitted from the parent generation to the offspring generation—whereas culture is replicated not only through vertical relationships but also extensively through horizontal relationships. Genes in typical animals and plants are passed on to the next generation through reproductive processes such as asexual or sexual reproduction; therefore, they are fundamentally transmitted vertically across generations. However, in modern biology, horizontal gene transfer occurs in various organisms, including bacteria and archaea, and has also been confirmed in some eukaryotes; therefore, it cannot be concluded that genetic information is transmitted exclusively through vertical transmission. Nevertheless, in most complex multicellular organisms, including humans, intergenerational inheritance relies primarily on vertical transmission. In contrast, culture can spread rapidly even among contemporaries through interaction and imitation. For example, the transmission of culture from the parent generation to the child generation through education can be described as vertical replication of culture, while the influence that members of the same group exert on each other’s personalities and behaviors, as well as the sharing of interests, can be described as horizontal replication. In addition, horizontal cultural transmission can be observed when people adopt foreign cultural elements, share instructions for using newly released electronic devices, or enjoy hobbies together. Because culture is so prominently replicated and transmitted horizontally even within the same generation, it can be said that the transmission of biological genetic information occurs in a relatively limited manner, at least when compared to human culture.
Second, while genetic information is replicated with high accuracy during the evolutionary process of living organisms, replication in the evolution of culture is closer to imitation than to replication. Furthermore, unlike biological replication, which is highly accurate, humans can assimilate the cultures enjoyed by others in different ways depending on their individual personalities, values, knowledge, and experiences; consequently, significant variations can occur during the process of cultural imitation. Even if we consider the spread of culture through imitation to correspond to variation in the evolutionary process, the evolution of culture and the evolution of living organisms can be viewed as fundamentally different because culture lacks the characteristics necessary to reliably replicate identical information in the same way as biological replication. Furthermore, it is difficult to view memes as corresponding exactly to biological genes in terms of the characteristics that Dawkins proposed “self-replicators” must possess: longevity, prolific reproduction, and high replication accuracy. Ultimately, since memes are transmitted from person to person through imitation, there are theoretical limitations to Dawkins’ discussion of memes—as he himself acknowledged that the foundation of his argument regarding memes is not entirely certain.
Third, once a biological species has become extinct, it is unlikely to reappear in its original form without special external intervention or a new evolutionary process, and biological traits are transmitted through a continuous process of inheritance and mutation. Culture, however, is different. Elements of a specific culture can be imitated again across time and place, regardless of which culture they originally belonged to or what characteristics they possessed prior to being imitated. A prime example is Renaissance culture. Seeking to revive the cultures of ancient Greece and Rome, people of the Renaissance reconstructed past cultures through various architectural structures, historical records, and works of art; despite a time gap of approximately 1,000 years, they re-adopted and developed cultural elements from the past. In this way, cultural elements that had not been passed down for some time can reemerge through records, memories, and artifacts. In contrast, phenomena such as extinct species naturally reappearing as the exact same species as in the past—without human intervention—are not observed in the general course of evolution.
In the process of variation, memes and genes differ in three key aspects. First, while acquired traits—those gained by an individual during its lifetime—are generally not directly encoded in genetic information and passed on to offspring, culture spreads through imitation, allowing acquired characteristics to be transmitted to others. In other words, while genetic variation can lead to genetic variation within a population when changes occur in genetic material and are passed on to the next generation through germ cells, culture can undergo significant changes not only during the process of transmission but also as it is enjoyed and utilized. Take the recipe for a specific dish as an example. When a recipe is passed on to another person, if the recipient refines it into a better version through research and experience, this can be viewed not as a simple replication during the transmission process, but as a cultural variation that occurred during the process of engaging with the culture. Furthermore, since refinements and improvements frequently occur in songs, slogans, and manufacturing methods, it can be concluded that variation continuously arises even during the process of engaging with culture.
Second, in the evolution of living organisms, genetic variation arises through processes such as mutations and recombination of genetic material; it is not something that individuals consciously select or produce. In contrast, the evolution of culture is different. Since people can decide whether to accept a culture, and since individuals may adopt it in different ways depending on their characteristics, variation can occur actively. A prime example is the adoption of another culture. In such cases, it is not merely memes at work during the transmission process; the manner of acceptance can vary depending on one’s existing values. For example, a person of a particular religion might completely reject a drinking culture based on their beliefs, or they might accept a specific culture while excluding elements that conflict with their religious beliefs. Furthermore, considering the vertical transmission of culture, the culture itself can change depending on how the pioneer transmits it. In particular, in education—a form of vertical transmission—if the transmitter believes that certain aspects of the culture they practice are wrong, they may consciously exclude those elements when teaching students or even instruct students to view them as incorrect; thus, the transmission of culture is far from a passive process. An extreme example of this is censorship, which can be viewed as the intentional alteration of certain cultural elements before they are transmitted to others.
Finally, while the process of variation in living organisms during evolution results from the combined effects of genetic variation and environmental factors, in culture, intentional variation by the imitators who participate in it frequently occurs. When variation occurs in an individual, it arises from genetic factors or interactions with the environment; if we consider only genetic variation, the direct cause of its occurrence can be said to be changes in genetic material. However, in culture, there are numerous instances where people intentionally induce variation. For example, consider the difference between an original song and an arrangement. If a part of the original song that was not to one’s liking was intentionally modified in an arrangement, this constitutes a variation introduced by the imitator. In addition, cultural changes can be observed in various aspects of daily life—such as the practice of making kimchi, which originally used only salt but, over time, began to incorporate red pepper powder as well. To summarize, we can see that in the evolution of living organisms and culture, the processes that generate variation and the agents involved in those processes do not correspond to one another.
There is also a significant difference in the final stage of evolution: selection. When variation occurs in an individual and undergoes the process of natural selection, which individuals survive and leave more offspring is determined by various factors, including the environment and interactions with other individuals. However, when culture is replicated, it follows a process closer to imitation than biological replication; therefore, the agent deciding whether to adopt the imitated culture is not the meme but the person—that is, the imitator themselves. In other words, unlike living organisms, which are subject to selective pressure from the environment and biological conditions, culture can be actively selected based on the judgment of individuals or groups. In the futuristic film ‘Gattaca’, there is a scene where parents select their children’s genetic traits; however, even if such genetic selection were to become possible one day, the agent of choice would be “others,” not the individual “themselves.” In other words, the genetic information formed during an individual’s development cannot be freely altered according to their own will. In contrast, culture is adopted through the choices and judgments of each individual. A prime example of such a choice is religion. Since the decision of which religion to choose after being exposed to various religions rests entirely on the individual’s judgment, it becomes clear that culture allows for a more active form of choice compared to biological selection.

The Problem of Existence Inference

The foundation of Dawkins’ argument was that, just as genes act as self-replicators that are relatively stably replicated and transmitted—and serve as key units of selection—in the evolution of living organisms, there must be a “something” that plays a similar role in the evolution of culture; he defined that “something” as a “meme.” However, as mentioned earlier, it became clear that the evolution of culture differs in nature from the evolution of living organisms in terms of the processes of replication, mutation, and selection. While the transmission of genetic information in living organisms occurs primarily through reproduction and inheritance, culture is transmitted through imitation; thus, it was confirmed that imitators—that is, people—play a central role in the transmission and transformation of culture. In the process of variation, genetic mutations occur primarily through changes in genetic material and recombination; however, in culture, intentional variations by mimics and transformations during the acceptance process frequently occur, so mimics play a crucial role here as well. Finally, in the process of selection, while the selection of living organisms is determined by the natural environment and biological interactions, in culture, it is ultimately the mimic who chooses which culture to embrace and accept. Taking all this into account, since humans—that is, imitators—play a very significant role in the various processes of cultural evolution, there is a problem with explaining the entire process of cultural evolution solely through the lens of a single independent entity, the “meme.” In other words, there is insufficient evidence to definitively assert that the agent of cultural evolution, as claimed by Dawkins, is an independent self-replicating “meme,” and the inference that “memes” are the agents of cultural evolution can be considered problematic.

Conclusion

Dawkins interprets evolution from the perspective of genes and, furthermore, argues that memes are the agents of cultural evolution based on the similarities between genes and memes. When considering the evolution of living organisms and the evolution of culture in relation to each other based on his argument, it becomes clear that there are various fundamental differences rather than similarities. We have identified several differences supported by real-world examples—such as the fact that the mechanisms at work and the role of humans differ in the processes of replication, mutation, and selection, which correspond to the stages of evolution, as well as differences in how mutations are accepted and transmitted—and therefore, it is unreasonable to equate genes with memes. In particular, since culture is transmitted through people’s conscious choices, interpretations, and modifications, it is not valid to consider memes as independent agents of cultural evolution in the same sense as biological genes. However, this study faced limitations in specifically proposing alternatives to memes regarding what, if anything, could be considered the agent of cultural evolution. Therefore, further research is needed to explore the relationship between the complex processes of cultural evolution and human imitation, learning, and selection, as well as to examine which units and mechanisms actually play a significant role in the process of cultural evolution.