In this blog post, we’ll examine the process of cultural integration and explore how it can be interpreted through the theory of anomie.
Culture is constantly changing over time and taking on new forms. This is easily evident just by comparing the lifestyles of the Joseon Dynasty with those of modern times. So, in what direction is culture actually changing? If we look at fields such as cuisine, we can easily find examples where the food cultures of one country and another merge to give birth to a new food culture. Observing this phenomenon, it appears that cultures are blending and becoming integrated.
On the other hand, if we view this phenomenon from a different perspective, we might argue that since a new food culture—one that did not previously exist—has emerged, the number of cultural types has actually increased. Ultimately, since the number of cultural types has increased, one could argue that “culture is not integrating but is diversifying even further.” However, considering that new cultures are often created by combining the characteristics of existing cultures, I believe it is a more reasonable perspective to interpret culture as moving toward integration. Let us now examine how well this perspective explains various current social phenomena.
Some may oppose this perspective, citing examples such as Brexit in the United Kingdom, World War II, and the Syrian Civil War. Phenomena like wars or civil wars, which appear to hinder cultural integration, can be interpreted from the perspective of anomie. I believe anomie arises because the existing culture has reached a state where it can no longer maintain cohesion. Furthermore, in the process of resolving this anomie, a stronger form of cultural cohesion emerges than before. First, I will examine the meaning of anomie, and then apply this explanation to representative historical examples.
First, let’s explore the concept of anomie. The term “anomie” derives from the Greek word “anomia,” which means lawlessness, a state of disorder, or the absence of law. Although it fell out of use after the Middle Ages, the French sociologist Émile Durkheim revived the term, establishing it as a concept denoting a state of chaos in which the shared values and moral norms that regulate members of society have weakened or been lost.
Let’s consider World War II as an example. The background to the outbreak of World War II was the extreme economic instability that followed Germany’s defeat in World War I, which resulted in the loss of territory and the imposition of massive reparations. This was compounded by severe inflation and social turmoil, leading to the rise of fascism in Germany and Italy. Under these circumstances, it became increasingly difficult to maintain Germany’s existing social order, which ultimately led to the extreme choice of war.
Following this war, the Cold War system took shape, centered on the United States and the Soviet Union. However, the Soviet Union was unable to sustain its federal system and eventually disintegrated, bringing the Cold War to an end. Meanwhile, after the war, Europe witnessed a movement to overcome long-standing conflicts and expand economic and political cooperation, which ultimately led to the establishment of the European Union (EU). Since then, the European Union has developed various forms of integration—such as expanding its membership, establishing a single market, and promoting common policies.
Of course, World War II itself cannot be viewed as the direct cause of the European Union’s creation. However, if we interpret World War II as a phenomenon of anomie, we can see that, after the turmoil of the war, a higher level of cultural and political integration was achieved than before.
Second, let us consider the Great Depression in the United States. Examining the background of the Great Depression reveals that production volumes increased significantly due to rapid technological advancements at the time. Furthermore, mechanization and the consolidation of corporate structures into large enterprises were underway across all industries. While these changes might have appeared highly positive, the reality was quite different. As a significant portion of national income became concentrated among a small upper class, income inequality between social classes gradually deepened.
Consequently, consumption among the majority of the population failed to increase sufficiently, and goods mass-produced by companies gradually began to remain unsold. As consumption stagnated, economic growth slowed, and investment capital began to flow into speculative markets—such as the stock market—rather than the real economy.
As a result, a bubble formed in which companies were valued far higher than their actual worth, and as more capital flowed into the market, the bubble grew even larger. Ultimately, stock prices crashed, causing countless companies to go bankrupt and leading to the Great Depression, a collapse of the entire economy.
This situation can be viewed as a classic example of anomie, revealing the inherent flaws of the capitalist system. Subsequently, the United States implemented the New Deal to promote economic recovery, and as government intervention in the market expanded, the existing laissez-faire capitalism evolved into a form of modified capitalism. Subsequently, many other nations also developed their systems in a direction that expanded state intervention in the economy. Examining this process reveals that problems arose because the existing capitalist system failed to adequately respond to changing times, and a new form of economic system emerged as the crisis was overcome. In other words, it can be interpreted that new cultural and institutional integration took place in the process of resolving the anomie caused by the Great Depression.
Finally, let us examine Rome’s official recognition of Christianity. Looking at the background behind Rome’s decision to recognize Christianity, Rome at that time was facing invasions by Germanic tribes to the north, threats from North African forces to the south, and war with the Sassanid Persian Empire to the east. Since Rome was originally a polytheistic state, it persecuted Christianity, which believed in a single God. However, as external wars continued, the state’s ability to suppress Christianity gradually weakened, and Christianity began to spread throughout the Roman Empire. To address this situation, Rome ultimately granted Christianity official recognition.
Emperor Constantine sought to use Christianity to strengthen imperial authority and achieve the unification of the empire. Although he collaborated with Christian forces in an attempt to revive the empire, the vast Roman Empire ultimately vanished into history. Unlike the examples examined earlier, this case involves one of the two conflicting cultures absorbing the other. Since the society that absorbs the culture unites more people than before and transforms in a new direction, this absorption of culture can also be viewed as a form of cultural integration.
In this case, the conflict between polytheistic Rome and Christianity acts as an element of anomie. Ultimately, this anomie was resolved as Christianity was officially recognized in Rome and the Roman Empire subsequently collapsed. Before the fall of the Roman Empire, polytheistic states and Christians coexisted. However, after the fall of the Roman Empire, Christianity gradually established itself as the dominant religion in European society, and polytheistic culture declined significantly. Ultimately, this can be interpreted as a process in which the existing religious culture was integrated into a new religious culture.
Some may argue that disorder—such as war or social upheaval—is naturally resolved over time and therefore cannot be viewed as cultural integration. However, once the disorder is resolved, a new form of culture emerges that incorporates both the characteristics of the existing culture and newly formed ones. Consequently, this culture is capable of embracing a broader range of people than before, and it is appropriate to interpret this as cultural integration.
Thus far, we have examined three examples—war, the economy, and religion—to show that cultural integration can occur as elements of anomie are resolved. By analyzing these cases, we can apply anomie theory to other historical examples to explain phenomena that appear to hinder cultural integration as, in fact, part of the process of cultural integration.
Of course, there are historical cases that are difficult to explain solely through anomie-based interpretations. A prime example is the “Thirty Years’ War,” which led to the schism between the Catholic and Protestant churches. However, rather than focusing solely on the outcome of the war, if we also consider the economic and political factors of the time, it is possible to interpret this as a process in which culture was integrated into a new form as elements of anomie were resolved.
Even today, various forms of anomie—such as territorial disputes, regional conflicts, and social strife—continue to emerge in various parts of the world. While it is impossible to predict with certainty how these conflicts will be resolved, the three cases examined above suggest the possibility that a new form of integrated culture, distinct from what existed before, may emerge in the process of resolving these conflicts.
